Glossary

"words are not material, physical, or have any innate connection to reality. Language is symbolic and uses words to represent objects and ideas"
(Indiana State Department of COMM, 2016).

"Accents are distinct styles of pronunciation (Lustig & Koester, 2006). There can be multiple accents within one dialect" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Acceptance of cultural difference occurs when people recognize that different beliefs and values are shaped by culture, that different patterns of behavior exist among cultures, and that other cultures have legitimate and worthwhile perspectives that should be respected and valued. The acceptance stage may also manifest as greater curiosity about or interest in other cultures, and people may start to seek out cross-cultural relationships and social interactions that they might have avoided in the past" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

"Acculturation is the process of social, psychological, and cultural change that happens when cultures blend."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Adaptation refers to a feature or a behavior that helps a living thing survive and function better in its environment and a genetic adaptation refers to changes physiological processes and genetics as a result of environmental or cultural variance."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Adaptation to cultural difference occurs when people are able to adopt the perspective of another culture, when they can empathize intellectually and emotionally with the experiences of others, or when they can interact in relaxed, authentic, and appropriate ways with people from different cultures" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

"Adaptors are touching behaviors and movements that indicate internal states typically related to arousal or anxiety. Adaptors can be targeted toward the self, objects, or others. In regular social situations, adaptors result from uneasiness, anxiety, or a general sense that we are not in control of our surroundings" (Jersek, 2022).

Adjustment: The third stage of culture shock where, “[a]s more time passes (usually 6 to 12 months) individuals generally grow accustomed to the new culture and develop routines. The host country no longer feels new and life becomes ‘normal.’ Problem-solving skills for dealing with the culture have developed and most individuals accept the new culture with a positive attitude. The culture begins to make sense, and negative reactions and responses to the culture have decreased” (Worthy, Lavigne, and Romero, 2020).

Ambiguous - language is the medium through which groups preserve their innate cultures and keep their traditions alive.

Revised from: Indiana State Department of Communication.

symbols–or words– have several possible meanings, which often change over time.

"symbols have no direct relationship to the objects or ideas they represent" (Indiana State Department of COMM, 2016).

"Ascribed identities are personal, social, or cultural identities that are placed on us by others,  (Martin & Nakayama, 2010)....Sometimes people ascribe an identity to someone else based on stereotypes. You may see a person who likes to read science-fiction books, watches documentaries, has glasses, and collects Star Trek memorabilia and label him or her a nerd. If the person doesn’t avow that identity, it can create friction, and that label may even hurt the other person’s feelings" (Communication, 2016).

"Assimilation is a cognitive process that occurs when we change information in order to make it fit within our schema; with this conflict schema is less likely to change."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"our tendency to perceive others as similar to us. When we don’t have enough information about a person to know their key personality traits, we fill in the gaps—usually assuming they possess traits similar to those we see in ourselves. We also tend to assume that people have similar attitudes, or likes and dislikes, as us" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

“An alien in the United States or at a port of entry who is found to be unable or unwilling to return to his or her country of nationality, or to seek the protection of that country because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution. Persecution or the fear thereof must be based on the alien's race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. For persons with no nationality, the country of nationality is considered to be the country in which the alien last habitually resided. Asylees are eligible to adjust to lawful permanent resident status after one year of continuous presence in the United States. These immigrants are limited to 10,000 adjustments per fiscal year” (unhcr.org, 2021).

Asylum: "The grant, by a State, of protection on its territory to persons from another state who are fleeing persecution or serious danger. Asylum encompasses a variety of elements, including non-refoulement, permission to remain on the territory of the asylum country and humane standards of treatment" (unhcr.org, 2021).

"Avowed identities are those [personal, social, or cultural identities] that we claim for ourselves (Martin & Nakayama, 2010)" as quoted in Communication in the Real World (2016).

"A belief is a concept or idea that an individual or group holds to be true. Beliefs represent our subjective conviction in the truth of something -- with or without proof (Samovar, et al., 2017, p. 202).

"Beliefs are the way people think the universe operates. Beliefs can be religious or secular, and they can refer to any aspect of life. For instance, many people in the United States believe that hard work is the key to success, while in other countries your success is determined by fate" (Worthy Lavigne & Romero, 2020).

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Sometimes called the “Bennett Scale,” the model describes the standard ways in which people experience, interpret, and interact across cultural differences, and it proposes a developmental continuum along which people can progress toward a deeper understanding and appreciation of cultural variance, as well as greater social facility when negotiating cross-cultural dissimilarity. Bennett founded the Intercultural Development Research Institute to support related research and practical applications of the model" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

"Bias...refers to differences that do not have exactly the same meaning within and across cultures."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

binary refers to either-or, 2 possible choices – much like a bicycle has 2 tires, “male or female” is an example of a binary choice.

"According to the biomedical method, doctors look for physical signs of what is wrong.  Once the symptom is identified, things like drugs and procedures are used to get rid of the problem.  Providers who operate from a biomedical model, might communicate in ways that are efficient and logical.  This approach uses relatively little time, and providers might see many patients in a day" (Krumrey, 2022).

Chronemics refers to the study of how time affects communication. Time can be classified into several different categories, including biological, personal, physical, and cultural time (Andersen, 1999).

"Cisgender is a term for when a person’s birth sex corresponds with his/her gender identity and gender role."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Civil War: “...a politically organized, large-scale, sustained, physically violent conflict that occurs within a country principally among large/numerically important groups of its inhabitants or citizens over the monopoly of physical force” (Editorial Board, 2013).

"social interactions in which participants maintain respect for one another, and demonstrate respectful behavior toward one another, even when they disagree" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

Clan System (Somalia): ‘According to a renowned expert on Somalia and professor of anthropology: “The clan system is the most important constituent social factor among the nomadic pastoralist Somalis”. The clans function as sub ethnicities of the Somali nation. Clan affiliation is the main identity providing factor within the Somali nation. The clan system matters for all functions of society, even for the structure of the government. Somalis usually know their exact position within the clan system, including in urban Mogadishu. ‘The clan system is patrilinear and hierarchically structured. It can be differentiated into several levels: clan family, Diaspora - Diaspora is defined by the Cultural Atlas (2021) as "The movement, migration or dispersion of any people away from their established or ancestral homeland" and is often used to describe the Somalian experience. "The number of Somali-born people living outside of their homeland more than doubled to 2 million between 1990 and 2015, according to the Pew Research Center. The United Nations says that Somalia is one of five countries that produce two-thirds of the world's refugees; another is Myanmar, which is also a major source of newer refugees in Minnesota" (Rao, 2019).

Co-culture refers to, "groups or social communities exhibiting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are sufficiently different to distinguish them from other groups and communities and from the dominant culture" (Samovar, et. al., 2009, p. 13).

"refers to changes in accent, dialect, or language" (Martin & Nakayama, 2010) as quoted in Communication in the Real World (2016).

Codes are culturally agreed on and ever-changing systems of symbols that help us organize, understand and generate meaning (Leeds-Hurwitz, 1993).

"Collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society's position on this dimension is reflected in whether people’s self-image is defined in terms of 'I' or 'we' (Hofstede, 2012a)." (Green, et al., 2018).

"Collectivist cultures are those in which the primary unit of measurement is the group; likely to emphasize duty and obligation over personal aspirations."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"sharing and understanding meaning"  or “making common” (Pearson & Nelson, 2000).

Communication accommodation theory is a theory that explores why and how people modify their communication to fit situational, social, cultural, and relational contexts (Giles, Taylor, & Bourhis, 1973).

"One cannot discuss the construct of communication apprehension (CA) without bringing up the scholar James C. McCroskey. McCroskey coined the concept with his graduate students during his time on faculty at Michigan State University, and published the first article in 1970 utilizing the term. CA is generally defined as people’s fear or anxiety related to actual or anticipated communication with others" (Perrault, 2017) - see: https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756841/obo-9780199756841-0184.xml.

Compassionate listening is most simply defined as a “quality of listening which creates a safe container for people to be free to express themselves and to go to the level of their deep concerns….[It means] listening deeply to the needs and suffering of others and respecting their rights to their opinions…[forming the] basis of...successful dialogue, [which] can only take place when people are really ready to listen to each other and to themselves” (Hwoschinsky, 2006, p.3).

we seek out, conciously or unconciously, information that supports our stereotypes and ignores information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes (Grothe, 2021).

"Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out information that favors or confirms existing beliefs and expectations; outcome of assimilation."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Connotation refers to definitions that are based on emotion- or experience-based associations people have with a word" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

a person makes his or her communication more like another person’s.

approximations since they are based on limited data and are only a way to "approximately" know more about a larger population. (Samavor, et. al).

If the culture of a society was the iceberg, Hall reasoned, than there are some aspects visible, above the water, but there is a larger portion hidden beneath the surface” (www.constantforeigner.com, 2010).

"Cultural identities are based on socially constructed categories that teach us a way of being and include expectations for social behavior or ways of acting (Yep, G. A., 2002). Since we are often a part of them since birth, cultural identities are the less changeable [than social and personal identities]. The ways of being and the social expectations for behavior within cultural identities do change over time, but what separates them from most social identities is their historical roots (Collier, M. J., 1996)" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Cultural relativism regards cultural, religious, social, legal, familial, economic, etc. beliefs, practices, and traditions as relative to a given culture (Chin-Dahler, 2010). It is premised on the idea that all aspects of human cultures are relative to one another; that is, all cultures are equally valid and any standard of evaluation, assessment and judgment must be culturally internal only--any cultural criticism must come from persons of that culture.

"Cultural relativism is the principle of regarding and valuing the practices of a culture from the point of view of that culture and to avoid making hasty judgments."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

A culture’s values emerge in the context of particular social, cultural, economic, political, geographical, and environmental conditions. Hence, each culture is relative to one another and only assessed according to its cultural lens, boundaries, and worldview.

"Cultural time refers to how a large group of people view time" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Cultural universals are psychological processes that exist in every human culture and includes attributes such as values and modes of behavior.

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

As Samovar, Porter, McDaniel, & Roy (2017) explain, “Culture is a set of human-made objective and subjective elements that in the past have increased the probability of survival and resulted in satisfaction for the participants in an ecological niche, and thus became shared among those who could communicate with each other because they had a common language and lived in the same time and place” (p.39).

Culture shock: a common experience describing feelings of confusion, stress and disorientation that occur when entering an unfamiliar culture…Culture shock consists of at least one of four distinct phases: honeymoon; negotiation; adjustment; adaptation” (Worthy, Lavigne, and Romero, 2020).

" Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your roommate receives the message, he decodes your communication and turns it back into thoughts in order to make meaning out of it" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Deep culture, "refers to the norms and values that have become entrenched in society over generations. Deep culture is important “because of the institutions of family, church, and state give each individual his or her unique identity” (Samovar and Porter, 2003).

According to Samovar et al. (2000), the deep structure of culture refers to such issues as the relation between God and humans, the individual and the group, among families, as well as differing views of the relative importance of liberty and authority, equality and hierarchy, rights and responsibilities.

"Defense against cultural difference occurs when people perceive other cultures in polarized, competitive, zero-sum, or us-against-them terms (e.g., immigrants are taking our jobs, our traditional values are under assault, etc.); when they exalt their own culture over the culture of others (e.g., white nationalism); or when they feel victimized or attacked in discussions about bias, bigotry, or racism (e.g., they withdraw, leave the room, break down in tears, become defensive or hostile, etc.). Defense may also manifest in efforts to deny people from other cultures equal access or opportunity, such as opposition to affirmative-action policies or diversity-hiring initiatives" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

"Denial of cultural difference occurs when people fail to recognize distinctions among cultures or consider them to be irrelevant; when they reject the claim that cultural differences exist or that they can be meaningful and consequential; or when they perceive people from different cultures in simplistic, undifferentiated, and often self-serving ways. For example, people in the denial stage will lump other cultures into vague homogenized categories, such as “foreigner,” “immigrant,” or “Asian,” or they will stereotype, demean, or dehumanize others by assuming that different cultural dispositions must be the result of deficiencies in character, intelligence, physical ability, work ethic, or other innate traits" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

"Denotation refers to definitions that are accepted by the language group as a whole, or the dictionary definition of a word" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity describes six developmental stages of intercultural sensitivity and communication, beginning with denial (the perception that one’s cultural perspective is the only real, accurate, or valid interpretation of reality) and culminating with integration (the internalization of multicultural awareness and the ability to interact productively across cultural differences)" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

"Dialects are versions of languages that have distinct words, grammar, and pronunciation" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Diaspora: is defined by the Cultural Atlas (2021) as “The movement, migration or dispersion of any people away from their established or ancestral homeland” and is often used to describe the Somalian experience.

An organization of the stimuli into categories that are different.

Related to "the principles of perception, derived by the Gestalt psychologists, that describe the tendency to perceive and interpret certain configurations at the level of the whole rather than in terms of their component features. They include the laws of grouping identified by German psychologist Max Wertheimer in 1923: for example, the laws of closure, common fate, good continuation, proximity, similarity, and symmetry. Also called gestalt laws of organization. See also goodness of configuration; Prägnanz." (APA Dictionary of Psychology, 2022). See: https://dictionary.apa.org/gestalt-principles-of-organization for more information.

"Diffusion is the spread of material and nonmaterial culture and relates to the integration between cultures and within cultures."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Discrimination is behavior that advantages or disadvantages people based only on their group membership; this refers to behaviors."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Displacement: “Inter-communal clashes over land and water sources also resulted in significant casualties and displacement. More than 160,000 people were displaced as a result of forced evictions, many of whom were already living in displacement. Evictions occur when IDPs illegally occupy government buildings or when they are unable to pay their rent. More than 800,000 people were displaced by the effects of drought, including the disruption of livelihoods and shortages of water and food, but their displacements are not included in these figures, which relate to displacement associated with conflict” (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (formerly Global IDP Project), 2018).

"a person uses communication to emphasize the differences between his or her conversational partner and his or herself" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Diversity encompasses acceptance and respect. It is understanding that each individual is unique, and our individual differences need to be recognized.  These can be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender identity, gender expression, sexual orientation, socio economic status, age, physical/mental ability, religious beliefs, political beliefs or other ideologies.

Samovar, et. al, (2013) shares that they prefer to use the term dominant culture [over umbrella culture, majority culture, etc.] "because it clearly indicates that the group we are referring to generally exercises the greatest influence on the beliefs, values, perceptions, communication patterns, and customs of the culture. A dominant group is characteristic of all cultures, and this collective of people possesses those instruments of power that allow it to set the broad societal agenda the majority of others will commonly follow. The power we are referring to does not necessarily reside in numerical dominance but in the ability to control the major institutions within the culture — governmental, educational, mass media, economic, military, religious, and the like. What a dominant cultural group uses as the basis of power (money, fear, the military, and such) may differ from culture to culture, but in every case, the group determines the political, economic, and social agenda. Regardless of the source of power, certain people within every culture possess and exercise disproportionate influence, and that influence is translated into how other members of the culture shape their lives" (pp. 8-9).

Julia T. Wood states that dual perspective is when someone can understand not only their own unique perspective, feelings, and understanding, but as well as the unique views of another person (2013).

We only listen or speak inside closed chambers that echo [and amplify] our current beliefs and opinions” (Stewart, 2017).

echo chamber syndrome  We only listen or speak inside closed chambers that echo [and amplify] our current beliefs and opinions” (Stewart, 2017).

"Emblems are gestures that have an agreed-on meaning in a group, but are not part of a formal sign system like American Sign Language that is explicitly taught to a group of people" (Jersek, 2022).

"Empathy is the ability to understand someone’s emotional experience; we take on that person’s perspective and try to understand his or her point of view."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication...[T]he level of conscious thought that goes into encoding messages varies" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"This uniquely human form of learning, where the cultural tools for success are passed from one generation to another, is what is known as enculturation" (Worthy, Lavigne & Romero, 2020).

See: https://open.maricopa.edu/culturepsychology/chapter/culture-and-development/

"Enculturation describes the uniquely human form of learning that is taught by one generation to another."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Equity is a term that is related to equality. However, while equality simply means something like making sure each person is given the same opportunities, equity recognizes that individual differences mean that folks have different needs that must be met in order for them to participate. Equity considers differences and accommodates differences with the goal of equal participation or access" (Mussack, 2021). 

"Ethics are a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what behavior constitutes right and wrong conduct."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

This is a strong tendency to reflexively view one’s own cultural worldview, beliefs, and practices as superior to those of other cultures.

According to the APA Dictionary of Psychology (2022), ethnocentrism is:

"1. the practice of regarding one’s own ethnic, racial, or social group as the center of all things. Just as egocentrism is a sense of self-superiority, so ethnocentrism is the parallel tendency to judge one’s group as superior to other groups.

2. the tendency, often unintentional, to base perceptions and understandings of other groups or cultures on one’s own. Also called ethnocentricity. See also ingroup bias; racism; sociocentrism. —ethnocentric adj. [first described by U.S. sociologist William G. Sumner (1840–1910)]"

See: https://dictionary.apa.org/ethnocentrism

Extended families include other relations and generations in addition to the nuclear family. Along with married parents and their offspring, there might be the parents' parents, siblings of the spouses and children, and in-laws. In most extended families, all the family members live in one house or homes close to one another, forming one cooperative unit (Samovar, 2017).

"External attributions connect the cause of behaviors to situational factors" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

extraversion (extroversion)
n. one of the elements of the Big Five and five-factor personality models, characterized by an orientation of one’s interests and energies toward the outer world of people and things rather than the inner world of subjective experience. Extraversion is a broad personality trait and, like introversion, exists on a continuum of attitudes and behaviors. Extraverts are relatively outgoing, gregarious, sociable, and openly expressive. Extraversion is also one of the three personality dimensions in Eysenck’s dimensions. —extraversive adj. —extraverted adj. —extravert n. (APA, 2022).
See: https://dictionary.apa.org/extraversion

"Extrinsic motivation arises from external factors, things outside the person."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Familiarity bias, as described by Joseph Shaules in his book, The Intercultural Mind, is the brain’s tendency towards things that are familiar to us. Unfortunately, that leads to a lot of problems in foreign countries, where a lot of things are different and new by definition"(Retting, 2017).
See: https://medium.com/@rettigtim/3-cognitive-biases-that-affect-your-intercultural-communication-skills-532908fc3704

...While there is no simple answer to just what a family is, a definition advanced by Lamanna and Riedman is helpful: “A family is any sexually expressive or parent-child or other kin relationship in which people—usually related by ancestry, marriage, or adoption—(1) form an economic unit and care for any young, (2) consider their identity to be significantly attached to the group, and (3) commit to maintaining that group over time.” We like the Lamanna and Riedman definition because it is broad enough to include most types of family configurations found all over the world. That is to say, their definition is descriptive and non-ethnocentric because it “Combines some practical and objective criteria with a more social-psychological sense of family”(footnote 27) (Samovar, et al., 2017, pp. 63-65).

"Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) is a bias that makes individuals incorrectly label others. Their behavior is attributed to set negative personal flaws. This error makes individuals underestimate the role of external factors."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"—psychological manipulation that creates doubt in victims of sexist or racist aggression, making them question their own memory and sanity. This tactic is designed to invalidate someone’s experience"  From: https://hbr.org/2020/11/be-a-better-ally

"Gender refers to the cultural, social, and psychological meanings that are associated with masculinity and femininity."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Gender constancy refers to the awareness that gender is constant and does not change simply by changing external attributes; develops between 3 and 6 years of age."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Gender discrimination or sexism refers to differential treatment on the basis of gender."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"The way people communicate their gender within a given culture (socially constructed: feminine, masculine, and/or other)" (Out Front MN, 2022).

Out Front MN define nonbinary, genderfluid, or genderqueer as: terms used by some people who experience their gender identity and/or gender expression as falling outside of the categories of male or female (Out Front MN, 2022).

"Gender identity is a person’s psychological sense of being male or female."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

A term used for people whose gender expression differs from their gender identity (Outfront MN, 2022).

"Gender roles are the behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that are designated as either masculine or feminine in a given culture."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Gender stereotypes are the beliefs and expectations people hold about the typical characteristics, preferences, and behaviors of men and women."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"a movement of part of the body, especially a hand or the head, to express an idea or meaning.
'Alex made a gesture of apology' " (Oxford Online Dictionary, 2022).

Grammar refers to the rules that govern how words are used to make phrases and sentences.

"The halo effect occurs when initial positive perceptions lead us to view later interactions as positive (Communication in the Real" World, 2016).

Kristin Fuller (2021) who wrote The Difference Between Hearing and Listening, Psychology Today, posted July 8, 2021 “…[hearing] is a physiological reaction caused by sound waves …that stimulate the ear’s… sensory receptors. Our brain screens only a portion of stimuli and allows only a select few to come into focus. It is a passive process depending upon and responding to select auditory stimuli (selective hearing) requiring no attention."

"People in societies exhibiting a large degree of power distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification (Hofstede, 2012a)" - as highlighted in Green, et al., 2017.

“Hijab is an Islamic concept of modesty and privacy, most notably expressed in women's clothing that covers most of the body…”[or, a covering of the head] (National Geographic Society, 2013).

"Hofstede’s cultural values provide a framework that describes the effects of culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior.

Masculinity and Femininity refers to the distribution of emotional roles between the genders.
Uncertainty Avoidance refers to a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity.
Power Distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like a family) accept and expect their power is distributed unequally
Individualistic and Collectivist refers to the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups and their community.
Long Term and Short Term describes a society’s time horizon; the degree to which cultures encourage delaying gratification or material, social, emotional needs of the members."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Honeymoon: During this first stage of culture shock, “the differences between the old and new culture are seen in a romantic light. For example, after movin“g to a new country, an individual might love the new food, the pace of life, and the locals’ habits. During the first few weeks, most people are fascinated by the new culture. They associate with individuals who speak their language and who are polite to the foreigners. Like most honeymoon periods, this stage eventually ends” (Worthy, Lavigne, and Romero, 2020).

"The horn effect occurs when initial negative perceptions lead us to view later interactions as negative (Hargie, 2011)" - as quoted in Communication in the Real" World (2016).

“In 1976, Hall developed the iceberg analogy of culture. If the culture of society was the iceberg, Hall reasoned, then there are some aspects visible above the water, but there is a more significant portion hidden beneath the surface” (www.constantforeigner.com, 2010)

"Ideals are the principals or values that one actively pursues as a goal."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Identity is a psychological term used to explain the way individuals understand themselves as part of a social group and are recognized by others as members of the social group."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Illustrators are the most common type of gesture and are used to illustrate or support the verbal message they accompany. For example, you might use hand gestures to indicate the size or shape of an object. Unlike emblems, illustrators do not typically have meaning on their own and are used more subconsciously than emblems. These largely involuntary and seemingly natural gestures flow from us as we speak but vary in terms of intensity and frequency based on the context we’re in" (Jersek, 2022).

"Immediacy behaviors are verbal and nonverbal behaviors that lessen real or perceived physical and psychological distance between communicators and include things like smiling, nodding, making eye contact, and occasionally engaging in social, polite, or professional touch (Comadena, Hunt, & Simonds, 2007). Immediacy behaviors are a good way of creating rapport, or a friendly and positive connection between people" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Simply put, an immigrant is a person living in a country other than that of [their] birth. No matter if that person has taken the citizenship of the destination country, served in its military, married a native, or has another status—[they] will forever be an international migrant (Bolter, 2019).

Immigrant or Emigrant? Marriam Dictionary (2021) helps us better understand the confusion between immigrant and emigrant: "The main difference is that "immigrant" is used in reference to the country moved to, and "emigrant" refers to the country moved from. ... While the words have been used interchangeably by some writers over the years, immigration stresses entering a country, and emigration stresses leaving."

"Implicit prejudice occurs at the unconscious level, is involuntarily formed and unknown to us."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Implicit prejudice occurs at the unconscious level, is involuntarily formed and unknown to us."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Inclusion might be a more familiar or common term, and for the purposes of our text inclusion means that folks feel invited and able to participate. Just like equity, inclusion considers differences and works towards access. Consider what it means to be included in a space, or included in some special knowledge. Inclusion means more than presence; inclusion signals something like participation or agency. Inclusion might mean access to resources, to knowledge, to opportunities, or to physical or virtual spaces. When we consider inclusion, we need to consider how marginalized people are or are not invited to participate" (Mussack, 2021).

"a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families only" (Green, et al., 2018).

"Individualist cultures are those in which the primary unit of measurement is the individual. Individualists are likely to emphasize uniqueness and personal aspirations over social duty."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"One challenge that confronts humanity, now and in the past, is the degree to which small children are socialized. Without socialization we do not become “human”. This dimension is defined as the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised. Relatively weak control is called “Indulgence” and relatively strong control is called “Restraint”. Cultures can, therefore, be described as Indulgent or Restrained" (Hofstede Highlights, 2022).

the misperception of an inference (conclusion based on limited information) (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Integration of cultural difference occurs when someone’s identity or sense of self evolves to incorporate the values, beliefs, perspectives, and behaviors of other cultures in appropriate and authentic ways. As Bennett explains, “Integration of cultural difference is the state in which one’s experience of self is expanded to include the movement in and out of different cultural worldviews…. people are able to experience themselves as multicultural beings who are constantly choosing the most appropriate cultural context for their behavior" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

"the intentional decision to maintain civil behavior despite the urge to act or respond in less-than-civil ways" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

It is through intercultural communication that we come to create, understand, and transform culture and identity. Intercultural communication is communication between people with differing cultural identities (Samavor, et. al).

Intercultural communication apprehension refers to “the fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated interaction with people from different groups, especially different cultural or ethnic groups” (Neuliep & McCroskey, 1997a, p. 147).

According to Darla Deardorff (2004), “Intercultural [communication] competence is the ability to interact effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations, based on specific attitudes, intercultural knowledge, skills and reflection” (p.5).

"To clarify further, some researchers do view incompetence simply as a lack of competence, a state of affairs wherein a communicator does not possess the necessary motivation, knowledge, and skills to communicate competently" (Sage reference, 2012).

See: https://edge.sagepub.com/system/files/77593_6.2ref.pdf

"Internal attributions connect the cause of behaviors to personal aspects such as personality traits" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Psychologist William Schutz argues that humans have an interpersonal imperative, including the basic needs of affection (desire to give & receive love & liking), inclusion (desire to be social & to be included), and control (desire to influence people & events).

"Interpretation focuses more on paraphrasing the content that the speaker is trying to convey. An interpreter, someone who repeats the message but in a different language, deals with live conversation, which can include translating meetings, conferences, appointments, live TV, and more. Since interpretation is in real time, it requires someone who is able to work under pressure with excellent communication skills" (Kent State University, 2022).

Interpretation is the third part of the perception process, in which we assign meaning to our experiences using mental structures known as schemata.

"Intrinsic motivation arises from internal factors; things within the person."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

An introvert is a person with qualities of a personality type known as introversion, which means that they feel more comfortable focusing on their inner thoughts and ideas, rather than what’s happening externally. They enjoy spending time with just one or two people, rather than large groups or crowds (WebMD, 2022).
See: https://www.webmd.com/balance/introvert-personality-overview

"is often the shorthand used between people practicing the same profession and it might have no meaning outside the profession.  Examples of jargon in the healthcare world would be BP for blood pressure, NPO (nil pers os) or nothing by mouth, and c-section for birth by caesarian section." (Krumrey, 2022).

"Justice refers to the legal or philosophical theory by which fairness is administered."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Kinship: At the level of residential groupings, a set of patrilineally related kinsmen will form the nucleus of a kin group, to which other people are joined by ties of affinity or matrilaterality. For practical purposes, the genealogical depth of a residential kin group rarely goes beyond four or five generations; however, in matters such as feuding and payment of blood-wealth, the range of agnatically related kinsmen who are involved is greatly expanded (Somalis, n.d.).

Samovar, et al. (2018) define language as: "a set of shared symbols to create meaning. The words that people use are not only symbolic but the relationship between the symbol and the meaning is often arbitrary. Symbols can evoke both denotative and connotative meanings...A culture's use of language influences how that culture perceives the world and communicates within that world" (p. 292).

The following sets of terms are from the author identified.

“A Toolkit for Ensuring Safe and Supportive Schools for Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Students” (2017) shares the purpose of their work, “Safe, supportive and welcoming schools play a pivotal role in ensuring students are engaged in learning and that nothing hinders their ability to achieve their best in the classroom. The School Safety Technical Assistance Council seeks to help all schools in Minnesota ensure that all students in Minnesota regardless of their color, race, religion, gender or sexual orientation are afforded a safe, supportive and welcoming school environment where they can achieve success” (1).

The Toolkit defines terms as follows:

Defining Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Students Gender identity, assigned sex and sexual orientation are separate identity characteristics according to the American Psychological Association and National Association of School Psychologists (1).  Any student, including transgender and gender nonconforming students, may be heterosexual, gay, lesbian or bisexual. Gender identity does not correlate with sexual orientation. Understanding the terminology associated with gender identity is important to providing a safe and supportive school environment for students. The following terms and definitions are included in this toolkit to assist school leaders and staff in understanding the information presented in this resource:

Gender identity – an individual’s innate sense of one’s own gender; a deeply held sense of psychological knowledge of one’s own gender, regardless of the gender assigned at birth.
Gender expression – the external appearance, characteristics or behaviors typically associated with a specific gender.
Gender nonconforming – people whose gender expression differs from stereotypical expectations, such as “feminine” boys, “masculine” girls, and those who are perceived as androgynous or gender nonbinary.
Sexual orientation – refers to the sex of those to whom one is sexually and romantically attracted. Categories of sexual orientation typically have included attraction to members of one's own sex (gay or lesbian), attraction to members of the other sex (heterosexual) and attraction to members of both sexes (bisexual).
Transgender – an umbrella term for people whose gender identity, gender expression, or behavior, does not conform to that typically associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth (MN State, 2017, pp 1--2). (https://www.leg.state.mn.us/docs/2017/other/170928.pdf)

Citation listed in the definition above: 1 American Psychological Association & National Association of School Psychologists. (2015). Resolution On Gender And Sexual Orientation Diversity In Children And Adolescents In Schools. (http://www.apa.org/about/policy/orientationdiversity.aspx)

“Listening is the learned process of receiving, interpreting, recalling, evaluating, and responding to verbal and nonverbal messages” (Communication, 2016, p.230). Listening is a choice whereas hearing is a physiological action. Further, listening is a skill one can cultivate.

"This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies prioritise these two existential goals differently. Normative societies. which score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion. Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future" (Hofstede Insights, 2022).

"the distribution of power is considered far more arbitrary and viewed as a result of luck, money, heritage, or other external variables" (Green, et al., 2017).

In low-context cultures, verbal communication is given primary attention. The assumption is that people will say what they mean relatively directly and clearly. Little will be left for the receiver to interpret or imply. In the U.S., if someone does not want something, we expect them to say, “No.”

A high score (Masculine) on this dimension indicates that the society will be driven by competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner/best in field – a value system that starts in school and continues throughout organisational life.

A low score (Feminine) on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life. A Feminine society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable. The fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine).

"is the scientific language used by doctors to describe specific medical conditions.  Examples of medical terminology could be thrombosis for a blood clot and hypertension for high blood pressure" (Krumrey, 2022).

A person who leaves his/her country of origin to seek residence in another country (USDHS, 2020).

"Minimization of cultural difference occurs when people assume that their distinct cultural worldview is shared by others, when they perceive their culture’s values as fundamental or universal human values that apply to everyone, or when people obscure, disregard, or neglect the importance of cultural differences (e.g., such as when organizational leaders respond—when confronted with examples of racial, ethnic, or gender bias in the workplace—with statements such as “We try to treat everyone equally” or “I don’t see color”). Minimization may also manifest in arguments that human similarities are more important than cultural differences (thereby implying that cultural differences are unimportant or that they can be ignored), or in claims that “deep down humans are all alike” (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

"messages in which verbal and nonverbal signals contradict each other. For example, a person may say, “You can’t do anything right!” in a mean tone but follow that up with a wink, which could indicate the person is teasing or joking. Mixed messages lead to uncertainty and confusion on the part of receivers, which leads us to look for more information to try to determine which message is more credible: (Communication in the Real World, 2016),

"Monochronic people tend to schedule their time more rigidly and do one thing at a time"(Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Morality refers to intentions, decisions, and actions that are considered “proper” based on standards/principles."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

The word “Islam” means “submission to the will of God.” Followers of Islam are called Muslims. Muslims are monotheistic and worship one, all-knowing God, who in Arabic is known as Allah. Followers of Islam aim to live a life of complete submission to Allah (History.com Editors, 2018).

"The exchange of mutual respect among individuals and groups is essential for maintaining civil interactions" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

The Harvard University Pluralistic Project Archive quotes the St. Petersburg Times as follows: "...the naming ritual, telling the group that the elder or chief of a tribe has the ability to rename you, giving you an Indian name. Your Indian name can be used publicly, and it should say something about you personally. 'Your Indian name needs to fit who you are and who you can grow into,' said Duncan. A spiritual name is private and totally different. 'It is between you and your maker" (Harvard University, 2001).

Negotiation (also called “tension” in some charts: The second stage of culture shock where, “[a]fter some time (usually around three months depending on the individual), differences between the old and new culture become more apparent and may create anxiety or distress. Excitement may eventually give way to irritation, frustration and anger as one continues to experience unpleasant events that are strange and offensive to one’s own cultural attitude. Language barriers, stark differences in public hygiene, traffic safety, food accessibility and quality may heighten the feelings of disconnection from the surroundings…During the negotiation or “tension” phase, people adjusting to a new culture often feel lonely and homesick because they are not yet used to the new environment and encounter unfamiliar people, customs and norms every day. The language barrier may become a major obstacle in creating new relationships. Some individuals find that they must pay special attention to culturally specific body language (e.g., arms crossed, smiling), conversation tone, and linguistic nuances and customs (e.g, handshake, turn taking, ending a conversation). International students often feel anxious and feel more pressure while adjusting to new cultures because there is special emphasis on their reading and writing skills.” (Worthy, Lavigne, and Romero, 2020).

Neologisms are newly coined or used words. Newly coined words are those that were just brought into linguistic existence. Newly used words make their way into languages in several ways, including borrowing and changing structure (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Throughout history, some people have identified as neither male nor female, or as ‘nonbinary’….Nonbinary people’s gender identity lies outside the boundaries of a strict male–female dichotomy” (National Institute of Health, 2020).

“Nonverbal communication is a process of generating meaning using behavior other than words. Rather than thinking of nonverbal communication as the opposite of or as separate from verbal communication, it’s more accurate to view them as operating side by side—as part of the same system” (Communication, 2016, p.165).

Samovar, et. al (2018) add, "we purpose that nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source and [their] use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source and/or receiver.

"Norms are things that are considered normal, appropriate, or ordinary for a particular group of people and guide members on how they should behave in a given context. In Western cultures wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a funeral. In certain cultures, they reflect the values of respect and support of friends and family" (Worthy, Lavigne & Romero, 2020).

See: https://open.maricopa.edu/culturepsychology/chapter/culture-and-development/

Nuclear families are generally defined as a core unit of parents and children living in a dwelling.

judgment based upon observable data and uninfluenced by emotions and personal prejudices (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/objectivity).

"The study of smell in humans is called olfactics" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Organization is the second part of the perception process, in which we sort and categorize information that we perceive based on innate and learned cognitive patterns (Communication, 2016).

Three ways we sort things into patterns are by using proximity, similarity, and difference (Coren, 1980).

"Othering is a phenomenon in which some individuals or groups are defined and labeled as not fitting in within the norms of a social group. It is an effect that influences how people perceive and treat those who are viewed as being part of the in-group versus those who are seen as being part of the out-group.

Othering also involves attributing negative characteristics to people or groups that differentiate them from the perceived normative social group.

It is an “us vs. them” way of thinking about human connections and relationships. This process essentially involves looking at others and saying "they are not like me" or "they are not one of us."

Othering is a way of negating another person's individual humanity and, consequently, those that are have been othered are seen as less worthy of dignity and respect.

On an individual level, othering plays a role in the formation of prejudices against people and groups. On a larger scale, it can also play a role in the dehumanization of entire groups of people which can then be exploited to drive changes in institutions, governments, and societies. It can lead to the persecution of marginalized groups, the denial of rights based on group identities, or even acts of violence against others" (Cherry, 2020).
See: https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-othering-5084425#:~:text=Othering%20is%20a%20phenomenon%20in,part%20of%20the%20out%2Dgroup.

"A vocal element of nonverbal communication is paralanguage, which is the vocalized but not verbal part of a spoken message, such as speaking rate, volume, and pitch" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Perception is more of a process whereby each of us creates “mental images” of the world that surrounds us, that is, of the “world out there” (Green, Fairchild, Knudsen, & Lease-Gubrud, 2018).

According to Gamble and Gamble's definition (1996), "Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sense data in a way that enables people to make sense of our world." (p. 77).

Perception checking involves being able to describe what is happening in a given situation, provide multiple interpretations of events or behaviors, and ask yourself and others questions for clarification.

"Personal identities include the components of self that are primarily intrapersonal and connected to our life experiences. For example, I consider myself a puzzle lover, and you may identify as a fan of hip-hop music" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Personal identity is the way that we understand ourselves (e.g., personality, traits, and preferences) and is closely related to our concept of self."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Personal time refers to the ways in which individuals experience time. The way we experience time varies based on our mood, our interest level, and other factors" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Personality is one of the things that make us unique from one another and are long term, stable, and not easily changed. Considered heritable and biological."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Personality traits reflect patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are relatively consistency and stable but are influenced by situational determinants."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Physical context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your communication" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Physical time refers to the fixed cycles of days, years, and seasons. Physical time, especially seasons, can affect our mood and psychological states" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Physiological noise is noise stemming from a physical illness, injury, or bodily stress. Ailments such as a cold, a broken leg, a headache, or a poison ivy outbreak can range from annoying to unbearably painful and impact our listening relative to their intensity" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Polychronic people do not view time as a linear progression that needs to be divided into small units and scheduled in advance. Polychronic people keep more flexible schedules and may engage in several activities at once" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

This dimension deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal – it expresses the attitude of the culture towards these inequalities amongst us. Power Distance is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.

"The power distance dimension of culture expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect power to be distributed unequally" (Green, et al., 2017).

Simply, to "pre-judge" a person, group of people, or society.

"Why do people hold prejudices? Psychologist Richard Brislin (1999) suggests
that just as stereotyping arises from normal cognitive functioning, holding prejudices
may serve understandable functions. These functions may not excuse prejudice, but
they do help us understand why prejudice is so widespread. He identifies the following
four such functions:
1. The utilitarian function. People hold certain prejudices because they can lead
to rewards. For example, if your friends or family hold prejudices toward certain
groups, it will be easier for you simply to share those attitudes, rather than risk
rejection by contradicting their attitudes.
2. The ego-defensive function. People hold certain prejudices because they don’t
want to believe unpleasant things about themselves. For example, if either of us
( Judith or Tom) is not a very good teacher, it will be useful for us to hold negative stereotypes about students, such as that they are lazy and don’t work hard.
In this way, we can avoid confronting the real problem—our lack of teaching
skills. The same kind of thing happens in the workplace: It is easier for people
to stereotype women and minorities as unfit for jobs than to confront their own
lack of skill or qualifications for a job.
3. The value-expressive function. People hold certain prejudices because they serve
to reinforce aspects of life that are highly valued. Religious attitudes often function in this way. Some people are prejudiced against certain religious groups
because they see themselves as holding beliefs in the one true God, and part of
their doctrine is the belief that others are wrong. For instance, Judith’s Mennonite family held prejudices against Catholics, who were viewed as misguided and
wrong. This may also be operating today as some U.S. Americans search for
validation of prejudices again Muslims. A more extreme example involves the
atrocities committed against groups of people by others who want to retain the
supposed values of a pure racial stock (e.g., “ethnic cleansing” by Serbs against
Muslims in the former Yugoslavia).
4. The knowledge function. People hold certain prejudices because such attitudes
allow them to organize and structure their world in a way that makes sense to
them—in the same way that stereotypes help us organize our world. For example, if you believe that members of a certain group are flaky and irresponsible,
then you don’t have to think very much when meeting someone from that group
in a work situation. You already know what they’re like and so can react to them
more automatically" (Martin & Nakayama, 2020 p. 203).

"Prejudice is an evaluation (judgment) or emotion toward people merely based on their group membership; this can occur consciously or unconsciously."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Primary refugees are refugees who are initially resettled in Minnesota. Refugees include refugees, asylees, entrants/parolees, victim of trafficking and Amerasians" (Minnesota Department of Health, 2021).

Nccj.org shares: 

"Privilege: Unearned access to resources (social power) that are only readily available to some people because of their social group membership; an advantage, or immunity granted to or enjoyed by one societal group above and beyond the common advantage of all other groups. Privilege is often invisible to those who have it."

Provisionalism is the ability to accept the diversity of perceptions and beliefs, and to operate in a manner sensitive to that diversity (Green, et. al, 2018).

"n. one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to organize objects close to each other into a perceptual group and interpret them as a single entity. Also called law (or principle) of proximity" (APA Dictionary of Psychology, 2022).
See: https://dictionary.apa.org/proximity

"Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Psychological noise, or noise stemming from our psychological states including moods and level of arousal, can facilitate or impede listening. Any mood or state of arousal, positive or negative, that is too far above or below our regular baseline creates a barrier to message reception and processing" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Punctuation refers to the structuring of information into a timeline to determine the cause (stimulus) and effect (response) of our communication interactions" (Sillars, 1980).

Refugee: A refugee is defined as, "a person who meets the eligibility criteria under the applicable refugee
definition, as provided for by international or regional instruments, under UNHCR’s mandate, and/or in national legislation" (unhcr.org, 2021).

Ramadan: “Like all Muslims, Somalis are required to fast from eating or drinking from dawn to dusk during the ninth month of the Muslim calendar known as Ramadan. Anyone in good health over the age of 15 is required to fast, but if girls are menstruating, they are exempted from fasting during their cycle. While fasting is obligatory during Ramadan, fasting is also practiced among Somalis at any time of the year they want more spiritual purification. Many Somalis fast for one day or more at least every month” (Nutrition and fasting in Somali culture, 2020).

The OED defines Reappropriate as, "transitive. To take back; to reclaim for one's own use."

the referent is the object or idea to which the symbol refers (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

A refugee is defined as, "a person who meets the eligibility criteria under the applicable refugee definition, as provided for by international or regional instruments, under UNHCR’s mandate, and/or in national legislation" (unhcr.org, 2021).

The cultural group that has primary access to institutional and economic power is often characterized as the dominant culture (Lustig & Koester, 2010, pp. 313-314).

"our tendency to rehearse what we are going to say next while a speaker is still talking" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"the ability to control negative emotional reactions, such as defensiveness or anger, or to refrain from uncivil responses, such as combative argumentation, snide remarks, hostile gestures, or contemptuous looks and comments" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

"when people adopt the view that other cultures are superior to their own culture, such as when members of the dominant culture denigrate their own culture in the effort to secure approval, acceptance, or praise from minority groups" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

"the degree to which something attracts our attention in a particular context. The thing attracting our attention can be abstract, like a concept, or concrete, like an object. For example, a person’s identity as a Native American may become salient when they are protesting at the Columbus Day parade in Denver, Colorado. Or a bright flashlight shining in your face while camping at night is sure to be salient. The degree of salience depends on three features (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). We tend to find salient things that are visually or aurally stimulating and things that meet our needs or interests. Lastly, expectations affect what we find salient."

Also defined as, "the degree to which we are aware of our identities" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

This page titled 2.1: Perception Process is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Anonymous. 2.1: Perception Process by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/sociology-comprehensive-edition.

Hussein (2012) explains that the "Sapir-Whorf hypothesis asserts the influence of language on thought and perception, which strongly implies that speakers of different languages from different cultures perceive reality differently–language, in effect, determines worldview" (p. 642).

"Primary refugees are refugees who are initially resettled in Minnesota. Refugees include refugees, asylees, entrants/parolees, and victims of trafficking. Secondary refugees are refugees who originally resettled to another state in the United States before moving to Minnesota. Currently, there is no systematic way to identify all secondary refugees migrating to Minnesota" (Minnesota Department of Health, 2021).

"Secondary refugees are refugees who originally resettled to another state in the United States before moving to Minnesota. Currently, there is no systematic way to identify all secondary refugees migrating to Minnesota" (Minnesota Department of Health, 2021).

Selecting is the first part of the perception process, in which we focus our attention on certain incoming sensory information.

"our tendency to pay attention to the messages that benefit us in some way and filter others out' (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

"Selective perception bias is the tendency to ignore stimuli or quickly forget about stimuli which are causing us discomfort and go against our prior beliefs" (Retting, 2017).

See more: https://medium.com/@rettigtim/3-cognitive-biases-that-affect-your-intercultural-communication-skills-532908fc3704

"Self is a psychological construct that unconsciously and automatically influences our thoughts, actions, and feelings."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"One is born into this world without a sense of self. “Self is not innate, but is acquired in the process of communication with others.”2 With this declaration Wood is saying that through contacts with others, information is accumulated that helps define who you are, where you belong, and where your loyalties rest. Identity is multi-dimensional, since an individual has numerous identities ranging from concepts of self, emotional ties to family, attitudes toward gender, to beliefs about one’s culture. Regardless of the identity in question, notions regarding all your identities have evolved during the course of interactions with others" (Samovar, et al., 2016, p. 26).

"n. self-focused attention or knowledge. There has been a continuing controversy over whether nonhuman animals have self-awareness. Evidence of this in animals most often is determined by whether an individual can use a mirror to groom an otherwise unseen spot on its own forehead. A few chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans have passed this test. See self-focus" (APA Dictionary of Psychology, 2022).
See: https://dictionary.apa.org/self-awareness

"Self-concept refers to cognitive representations of one’s own self or images one has about oneself; our sense of self is linked to how we see the world around us and is also linked to how we see our relationships."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Self-effacement is the tendency to downplay one’s virtues or characteristics."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"Self-enhancement is the name given to psychological processes that we use to bolster self-esteem."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

A self-fulfilling prophecy is an expectation held by a person that alters his or her behavior in a way that tends to make it true. When we hold stereotypes about a person, we tend to treat the person according to our expectations. This treatment can influence the person to act according to our stereotypic expectations, thus confirming our stereotypic beliefs.

Self-fulfilling prophecies are ubiquitous—even teachers’ expectations about their students’ academic abilities can influence the students’ school performance (Jussim, Robustelli, & Cain, 2009).

"a belief or expectation that helps to bring about its own fulfillment, as, for example, when a person expects nervousness to impair his or her performance in a job interview or when a teacher’s preconceptions about a student’s ability influence the child’s achievement for better or worse. See Pygmalion effect; upward Pygmalion effect. See also behavioral confirmation; demand characteristics; expectancy effect" (APA Dictionary of Psychology, 2022).  See More: https://dictionary.apa.org/self-fulfilling-prophecy

"a perceptual error through which we attribute the cause of our successes to internal personal factors while attributing our failures to external factors beyond our control" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Information we take in with our 5 senses that helps us form a perception of the situation.

We can not attend to all sense data we are faced with, so some are "selected" and some are not.

"Sex refers to the biological category of male or female as defined by physical differences in genetic composition and in reproductive anatomy and function."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

"n. one of the gestalt principles of organization. It states that people tend to organize objects with similar qualities into a perceptual group and interpret them as a whole. Also called factor of similarity; law of similarity; principle of similarity"
(APA Dictionary of Psychology, 2022). See: https://dictionary.apa.org/similarity

"Slang refers to new or adapted words that are specific to a group, context, and/or time period; regarded as less formal; and representative of people’s creative play with language" (Communication in the Real World, 2016).

Communication in the Real World (2016) share, "Social constructionism is a view that argues the self is formed through our interactions with others and in relationship to social, cultural, and political contexts (Allen, 2011)."

"Social determinants are complex social structures and economic systems that can drive most health inequalities such as access to health care or education."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

“Our social identities are the components of self that are derived from involvement in social groups with which we are interpersonally committed” (Communication for the Real World, 2016).

Social identities differ from personal identities because they are externally organized through membership. Our membership may be voluntary (Maro is a member and leader in the group UNICOS MN) or involuntary (family), explicit (Marco pays a fee to continue to be a DACA member), or implicit (we purchase and listen to our favorite music genre).

"Social identity reflects our understanding that we are members of groups."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Social justice generally refers to the idea that everyone deserves equal and equitable access to things like wealth, political power, information, and opportunities. Social justice takes on the goals of diversity, equity, and inclusion, and puts something into practice in order to work towards achieving these goals" (Mussack, 2021).

Minnesota is reported to be the state with the most Somali-Americans.

"Wildly held beliefs about a group of people" (Martin & Nakayama, 2022, p. 200).

"Stereotypes are beliefs that characterize people based merely on their group membership."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

According to Goffman, "stigma is an attribute that discredits and reduces the person ‘from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one" (Goffman, 1963, p. 3).

In communication, a symbol is an expression that stands for something else and the act of assigning meaning to symbols is at the core of human communication" (Samovar, et. al, pp. 28-31).

Additionally, "a symbol is something that stands in for or represents something else. Symbols can be communicated verbally (speaking the word hello), in writing (putting the letters H-E-L-L-O together), or nonverbally (waving your hand back and forth). In any case, the symbols we use stand in for something else, like a physical object or an idea; they do not actually correspond to the thing being referenced in any direct way" (Communication, pp. 113-114).

"Territoriality is an innate drive to take up and defend spaces. This drive is shared by many creatures and entities, ranging from packs of animals to individual humans to nations. Whether it’s a gang territory, a neighborhood claimed by a particular salesperson, your preferred place to sit in a restaurant, your usual desk in the classroom, or the seat you’ve marked to save while getting concessions at a sporting event, we claim certain spaces as our own" (Communication in the Real World).

"when people are confronted with cultural difference, or when they feel criticized or judged for their cultural views, a common reaction is to get defensive or lash out" (Organizing Engagement, 2022).

Tie signs are nonverbal cues that communicate intimacy and signal the connection between two people. These relational indicators can be objects such as wedding rings or tattoos that are symbolic of another person or the relationship, actions such as sharing the same drinking glass, or touch behaviors such as hand-holding (Afifi & Johnson, 2005).

"A term for people whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth" (Out Front MN, 2022).

Kent State University shares: "When working within the translation field, one is working to successfully decipher the meaning of written content from a source language into the language that is targeted. One of the biggest differences between translation vs. interpretation is that translators often use a wider range of computer-assisted tools when working" (2022).

"Experts tend to create their own definition of trauma based on their clinical experiences. However, the most commonly referenced definition is from the Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA): 'Individual trauma results from an event, series of events, or set of circumstances that is experienced byan individual as physically or emotionally harmful or life threatening and that has lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical,
social, emotional, or spiritual well-being.'

Examples of trauma include, but are not limited to:
Experiencing or observing physical, sexual, and emotional abuse;
Childhood neglect;
Having a family member with a mental health or substance use disorder;
Experiencing or witnessing violence in the community or while serving in the military; and
Poverty and systemic discrimination" (Shared at: https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/programs_campaigns/childrens_mental_health/atc-whitepaper-040616.pdf).

Trauma-Informed Care
Trauma-informed Care is an organizational structure and treatment framework that involves understanding, recognizing, and responding to the effects of all types of trauma and seeking to employ
practices that do not traumatize or re-traumatize. Trauma-informed care also emphasizes physical,
psychological, and emotional safety; trustworthiness and transparency; collaboration and mutuality;
empowerment; and cultural sensitivity and responsiveness.
(Adapted from Johns Hopkins and SAMHSA)

"The dimension Uncertainty Avoidance has to do with the way that a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? This ambiguity brings with it anxiety and different cultures have learnt to deal with this anxiety in different ways. The extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these is reflected in the score on Uncertainty Avoidance."
(Hofstede Insights, 2022).

"The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a milestone document in the history of human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all regions of the world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 (General Assembly resolution 217 A) as a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected and it has been translated into over 500 languages" (United Nations, 2022).

"Values are broad preferences concerning appropriate course of action or outcome. Reflects our sense of what 'ought' to be."

Source: Culture and Psychology by L D Worthy; T Lavigne; and F Romero is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

words - verbal communication refers to any communication with grammatical structure. This includes spoken and written language.

Verbal Communication is defined as an agreed-upon and rule-governed system of symbols used to share meaning (Introduction to Communication, 2022).

is how people interpret reality and events, including their images of themselves and how they relate to the world around them” (Samavor et.al., 2017, p. 57).