Glossary

carbon-12, notation for isotope of carbon, the most commonly used element for determining the age of organic materials in archaeology

carbon-14, notation for isotope of carbon, the most commonly used element for determining the age of organic materials in archaeology

notation used for argon-39, used in dating rocks, minerals, and fossils

notation used for potassium-39, used in dating rocks, minerals, and fossils

notation used for argon-40, used in dating rocks, minerals, and fossils

notation used for potassium-40, used in dating rocks, minerals, and fossils

the procedures, techniques, and instruments one uses to complete an archaeological project.

A tool used for grinding, smoothing, or polishing, which could be used to shape bone and shell implements.

Instrumental method for calculating age that uses a mass spectrometer.

Modern experiments used to understand phenomena in the past.

Government employees, generally with advanced academic degrees in anthropology or related fields, who specialize in historic preservation law.

A metallic compound, formed through the mixing of two or more metals.

The domestication and breeding of select animal taxa.

An unofficial unit of geologic time used to describe the most recent period in Earth’s history, when human activity, specifically nuclear weapon detonation, started to have a significant impact on the planet’s climate and ecosystems.

A person who studies or collects antiques or antiquities.

The oldest law passed to protect archaeological resources in the United States, designed to protect historic sites on federal lands from vandalism and theft

In the Vertebrate skeleton, elements associated with the fore and hind limbs, the pectoral or shoulder girdle, and the pelvic or hip girdle.

a generalized series of steps or tasks an archaeologist takes to successfully develop, conduct, and complete archaeological projects.

Government employees who oversee the management of data on archaeological sites, collecting data provided by professional and avocational (unpaid) archaeologists.

The study of metal in archaeological contexts

An object that was made and used by humans in the past.

A pointed tool used for punching holes, often as a part of leather work.

In the Vertebrate skeleton, elements associated with the skull, spinal column, and rib cage.

(before common era/common era) - notation for reporting ages that moves away from the BC/AD date notation used by the Christian/Gregorian calendar. This is a more inclusive way of reporting dates that is recognized internationally.

The study of human remains excavated from archaeological sites.

Scientific exploration of the relationship between biology and culture.

Age, sex, ancestry, stature, trauma, and pathological assessment of skeletal remains.

In zooarchaeology, a type of secondary data that uses allometric scaling to estimate relative dietary significance based on comparison of faunal specimen weight.

A sampling strategy also known as "full coverage" or "total sampling," which takes samples from all units and individual features.

A method of flotation done by hand, in which soil is simply dissolved into a bucket so that any botanical remains will float to the surface.

(calibrated years before present) - correct notation for radiocarbon dates that are adjusted to account for reservoir effect, sample contamination, isotopic fractionation, and other natural effects that introduce error in the calculation of radiocarbon age

In an archaeological context, any material made by humans out of clay and subsequently fired so that the clay chemically changes and hardens.

The use of chemicals of differing densities to separate microbotanical remains from their matrix.

A type of fine-grained sedimentary rock that flakes easily and is often used for stone tools. Also known as flint.

When used in reference to lithics, a Clovis point is a fluted lanceolate spearpoint found throughout North America and dating from between roughly 12,000 and 11,000 BCE.

Archaeologists tasked with properly caring for the collections that come to a collections facility (usually lodged within a museum, often at the county or state level).

In zooarchaeology, refers to all organisms living in or around humans and human habitations that are not typically considered dietary items or faunal resources; in general, the humans neither benefit nor are harmed by the presence of these animals.

An archaeologist working in cultural resource management, either as an independent contractor or as an employee of a larger firm. Secretary of the Interior guidelines requires an advanced degree in anthropology or a related field.

The combination of the bones from two or more individuals

The active participation of non-archaeologists in the archaeological research process, ideally including various components that the community is involved in

An assemblage of correctly identified, labeled, and complete specimens that can be used to assist in the identification of unknown, typically fragmented, specimens.

The specific location in which an artifact is found, and by association its relationship to other artifacts and ecofacts recovered from the same specific location.

When used in reference to lithics, a core is the base material from which flakes are chipped in order to make stone tools.

The burning of a dead body as part of intentional funerary rites.

An approach to public archaeology which works to unsettle the interpretation of the past as told by socially dominant groups, typically with ulterior motives that socially subjugate other groups, by distorting the telling of the past

Any cultural object or marker of shared heritage that belongs to the community as a whole.

A period of time that is characterized by certain types and styles of artifacts; used to estimate a relative date.

The process by which historically significant landscapes, structures, buildings, sites, and artifacts are identified, assessed, and cared for to insure their perpetuation for scientific research and personal edification, reflection, and enjoyment

Material manifestations of a people, past or present, that can be investigated and interpreted in the service of a society.

the practice of cataloging, preserving, storing, and caring for archaeological collections and data.

refers to the ever-growing shortage of storage space available to properly curate and care for archaeological collections.

a part of the archaeological process when archaeologists gather data, either through remote sensing, survey, excavation, analysis, etc.

The waste produced when making a chipped-stone tool.

The process through which the nucleus loses energy and emits particles in an attempt to become stable.

A graph showing the speed of radioactive decay, calculated using statistics and principles of nuclear physics.

A timeline of the natural events that have affected the Earth since the planet was formed, going back billions of years (synonymous with Geologic Time)

Any activity (or lack of activity) that leaves marks or wear patterns on the bone.

A specific type of artifact that marks a specific period of time in the archaeological record.

An archaeological theory that sought to explain change in the archaeological record by ideas or technologies diffusing, or spreading, from a single point of origin

A statistical tool used to create or test groupings of objects.

informing other researchers and the public of the results of archaeological projects through reports, articles, presentations, and outreach.

Refers to plants and animals that have experienced a human-induced transformation in their reproductive and care needs. This transformation can be both physical and genetic.

The process through which plants and animals change biologically as a result of human interference, becoming dependent on humans at the same time that humans become dependent on them.

A natural object that was used by humans in the past. For example, the bones left over from a chicken dinner.

Inclusive term used to represent faunal and floral material obtained from the biotic environment and used by prehistoric and historic peoples.

An approach to public archaeology which aims to facilitate people’s learning of the past via archaeological thinking and methods

In zooarchaeology and bioarchaeology, term used to refer to a single or individual bone, tooth, scale, scute, valve, or similar faunal remain.

Data that can be counted, measured, and quantified.

Subdiscipline of archaeology that focuses on the relationship between past societies and the environment in which they lived; typically includes zooarchaeology, paleoethnobotany, and geoarcheology.

A branch of philosophy dedicated to the study of knowledge, colloquially phrased as “how you know what you know.”

A term for describing how “off” a scientific measurement is.

An approach through which archaeologists observe living peoples with similar material culture in order to test hypotheses about how objects were made or used in the past.

An approach through which archaeologists may attempt to replicate the manufacture or use of artifacts in order to test hypotheses about their role in the past.

Any and all animal (fauna) remains encountered at archaeological sites.

An indication of human activity in the past that cannot be removed from the site. This might be the remains of a building or a discolored stain in the soil that represents an old trash pit.

In reference to ceramics, this refers to heating the clay so that it chemically changes and hardens.

When used in reference to lithics, a flake is the long linear sliver of stone removed from the core, which can be used as a tool itself or further shaped into a scraper, knife, projectile point, or other chipped-stone tool.

Any and all plant (flora) remains encountered at archaeological sites.

The process of using water to separate soil into its components that are heavier and lighter than water.

A flotation machine

When used in reference to lithics, a fluted point is one that has had a long flake removed from both sides at the base, which would have made it easier to haft to a spear or other projectile.

The preservation of an organism against natural decay processes.

an organism that is preserved against natural decay processes, usually through petrification

A timeline of the natural events that have affected the Earth since the planet was formed, going back billions of years.

reports and other documents and forms of dissemination that are not widely known or distributed and difficult to acquire.

Stone tools that are made from sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic rock and shaped by pecking or grinding

The length of time required for half of a given number of atoms of that isotope to decay.

fiction that is based on archaeological data

Cannot directly observe the variation in a population's frailty.

All species, including side-branches and extinct species, on the human evolutionary line.

Left in the place where it was found.

In Anthropology, a person who provides specific information about a research topic.

Methods of analysis that use a piece of scientific equipment (other than the human senses) to gather data. Mass spectrometers, microscopes, radiation detectors, cameras, scales, and computers are all scientific instruments.

The method used to bury a dead body

An item found in archaeological context which was deposited before or after the human habitation or activity directly associated with a particular component, and as such does not reflect the activities that created the site.

Animals lacking an internal vertebral column or backbone; this term refers to all animals not found in the subphylum Vertebrata.

One of two or more forms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

A form of mass spectrometry used by archaeologists to analyze isotopic ratios of nitrogen, 13C, strontium (Sr), and carbonate (CO3).

Atoms of the same element that contain different numbers of neutrons.

A kind of oven where the heat is produced in a firebox and flows either up or down into a chamber where the pottery sits.

The idea that if you choose one specific patch of soil, and you dig down through the different layers, the layers at the bottom of your hole were deposited first.

when an archaeologist conducts background research before starting a project. This can involve studying the local geology, plant and animal life, and environment; previously identified archaeologists sites and projects in the area; past property owners, man-made modifications to the landscape; and other research that has been conducted on the time periods, cultures, and research topics the archaeologist is interested in.

Stone tools and the waste material from their creation.

Illegally removing objects from sites

Spontaneous emission of light by a substance.

Plant remains you can see with your bare eyes or a low-powered microscope, including seeds and wood charcoal.

The handstone used to grind food against a metate (lapstone).

A technique used to analyze the mass of different molecules in a sample

In archaeology, a general term used to refer to all tangible items created, used, and left behind by past cultures; this includes not only artifacts but larger items such as structures and cities.

The lapstone that the mano (handstone) grinds against.

Plant remains that you can only see with a high-powered microscope, including starch, phytoliths, and pollen.

Small animal remains that are difficult to discern with the naked eye; artificial magnification is typically needed for accurate identification.

Small animal remains that are difficult to discern with the naked eye; artificial magnification is typically needed for accurate identification.

The small signs of usewear that often occur along the edge of a tool. Since different uses lead to different wear patterns, a microwear analysis can help archaeologists better understand how a tool was used.

An accumulation of garbage, usually discarded in a hole in the ground

Fewest possible number of people, or animals, in a skeletal collection or archaeological assemblage.

The minimum number of individuals represented by the faunal remains identified to a recognized taxonomic group in a zooarchaeological assemblage.

Any impact or activity that results in the physical alteration of a faunal (or floral) remain; cultural modifications are those caused directly or indirectly by human activity, such as butchery or tool manufacture; non-cultural modifications are those resulting from non-human or natural activity, such as carnivore or rodent gnawing, weathering, and similar taphonomic processes.

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act

An ancient technique used for garments in many parts of Northern Europe, made of a structure of interlinked loops formed using a wooden or bone needle.

The landmark federal law protecting US cultural heritage, which governs how cultural resource management is practiced today.

A law passed to protect Indigenous ancestral remains and funerary objects, requiring identification of the lineal descendants of the peoples whom those materials represent, and their return to be reinterred or managed as those peoples deem best.

Metals that can be found in nature in a pure, metallic form (e.g. gold, copper, silver)

The number of identifiable faunal remains associated with a recognized taxonomic group in a zooarchaeological assemblage.

Naturally occurring volcanic glass, which flakes well to a very sharp edge and is often used for stone tools.

The study of teeth.

The earliest type of lithic artifacts, roughly-flaked butchering elements that were made by our earliest human ancestors at least 2.6 million years ago.

Orally transmitted stories and other cultural information that are collected through ethnography.

A narrative of an individual’s life history as told by their skeleton.

It is concerned with the heterogeneity in disease risk, selective mortality, and demographic nonstationarity on the health of past populations.

The study of bones.

A branch of paleontology and anthropology which seeks to understand the early development of anatomically modern humans.

The study of population structure (age, sex, survivorship, etc.) in past populations.

The study of how people used plants in the past.

A term which is used to refer to the period of the Ice Age in North America following standard archaeological chronology. The Clovis point dates to the Paleoindian period.

The study of pathologies (trauma, disease, and congenital defects) found in ancient human and animal populations.

The study of disease as viewed through the skeleton in past populations, or animals.

A technique in which thin sections of the ceramic are viewed under a microscope in order to identify the minerals within the clay matrix or additional inclusions.

The first step in CRM archaeology -- an archaeological site identification survey, designed to see if there are any cultural materials in the impacted area.

The second step in CRM archaeology, designed to evaluate whether or not a recorded site is eligible for inclusion on the National Register.

The third step in CRM archaeology, consisting of data recovery following an approved research design, conducted when an eligible site cannot be preserved.

Rigid structures made of silica, formed in plant tissues to provide support.

The geologic term for the epoch popularly known as the ice age.

Plied yarn is yarn that is made of two or more single strands of yarn twisted together.

A weight, often in a teardrop shape, which may have been attached to fishing nets to help them sink.

An approach to public archaeology which tries to understand relationships between material culture and different members of the public

A fine powder that plants make when they reproduce.

A theoretical approach building on humanistic methods.

A burial that is in its original location and position.

In zooarchaeology and paleoethnobotany, information obtained directly from the faunal or floral remains undergoing analysis; primary data are obtained during the initial stage of the analysis, and the results can be replicated during subsequent analysis.

A sampling strategy also known as 'judgmental sampling,' where samples are taken primarily from units and features that are thought to be of interest.

A theoretical approach building on scientific methods.

Generally refers to place of origin but in archaeology is typically used to reference the location where an artifact was found (i.e., depositional context).

The place of origin or source of an artifact or material.

Claims that misrepresent the nature of the archaeological record and archaeological methods in order to support predetermined conclusions.

In archaeology, a collection of methods archaeologists use to engage the public in archaeological research as well as general public awareness.

An approach to public archaeology which works to form connections between archaeology and individuals and/or social groups in order to broaden public awareness and understanding of archaeology in society

Information or data that is not easily described with numbers.

Information with a value that can be measured or counted (quantified), and have a distinct numeric value; contrasts with qualitative data, which refer to information that observed, characterized, described, and recorded but not quantified.

Atoms of elements that emit energy and particles as they decay into other elements.

the process through which the nucleus of a radioactive isotope loses energy and emits particles in an attempt to become stable

Dating methods based on the radioactive decay of isotopes, such as Carbon-14 or Potassium-40. By knowing the rate of decay for a radioactive element, researchers can determine the age of artifacts, structures, and stratigraphic layers.

A sampling strategy in which samples are selected through chance, or through arbitrary selection.

the amount of education, usually measured in years, that someone would need in order to understand what someone is saying in a written text

A published book, journal, or similar document or record that contains detailed information—typically illustrations—that can be used for specimen identification.

Assigning an object to a cultural period based on its color, size, or shape.

To return human remains and/or cultural items to their descendant communities.

In bioarchaeology, the process of returning human remains and burial associated artifacts to the descendent population.

A formal statement of the project goals and the methods that will be used to reach the project goal or goals.

An ad hoc process of extracting whatever one can from an archaeological site in imminent danger of destruction from natural catastrophes (e.g., forest fires, shoreline erosion) or construction occurring outside of the archaeological review process.

The bone commonly known as the shoulder blade, found in most animals.

Determination of what season (or seasons) of the year in which a site was occupied, based on the recovery of faunal and floral remains from species present or particularly abundant (e.g., migratory waterfowl) during a particular season, or by the presence of select seasonal indicators (e.g., growth lines in deciduous trees, or antlers in certain cervids).

A burial that has been moved from its original place of internment.

Information derived from primary data using indices and quantitative techniques; in contrast to primary data, secondary data are typically analytical products rather than based on direct observations or measurements.

The practice of permanently living in one place (usually in villages, towns, or cities) as opposed to following a more nomadic lifestyle.

Rock and mineral fragments

Relative dating method in which artifacts from multiple sites are placed in chronological order.

The blocky fragments of chipped stone material created from the hammer crushing the parent material during the flaking process.

The process of cutting the wool off of a sheep or similar animal.

Short for potsherds, referring to the broken pieces of pottery found at archaeological sites.

A place where there is physical or material evidence of past human activity.

A method of flotation that uses a simple machine.

Bead-like weights for the spindles that are used to spin yarn. They come in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and materials.

A form of plaiting or braiding with a fixed warp, used to create elastic fabrics for hairnets and similar items.

A person with an interest or concern in something.

A semicrystalline carbohydrate produced by plants.

A form of analysis that originated in geology. The goal of stratigraphic analysis is to understand the layering of soil in order to make temporal and cultural interpretations.

A sampling strategy through which samples are selected at regular intervals across the site or within the unit.

The study of the transition from the biosphere to the lithosphere, anything that happens to a body from the time of death to the time of discovery.

The systematic ranking of biological organisms based on hierarchical categories that reflect the sharing of similar traits or common ancestry.

When used in reference to ceramics, material that is intentionally added to the clay to prepare it for different uses. Temper can include quartz and other minerals; grasses or other organic materials; or ground shell, bone, or pottery fragments.

A dating method which measures accumulated radiation since the last time a material has been heated. When used on ceramics, this will usually provide the approximate date that the piece was initially fired.

An object that is made for a specific purpose. Tools are generally characteristic of humans although some animals are also known to make and use tools.

A place significant to the cultural practices and belief systems of one or more groups of people.

The knowledge Indigenous peoples have learned about their environment through interacting with it for generations.

A grouping or classification of different objects based on predetermined criteria.

Small statuettes of women found across Europe from approximately 35,000-20,000 years ago.

Animals with a spinal column or backbone, and at least some internal skeletal elements; refers to the subphylum Vertebrata, within the phylum Chordata in the animal kingdom (kingdom Animalia).

In weaving, the set of threads that runs the length of the fabric.

In weaving, the set of threads that runs from side-to-side along the fabric, at right angles with the warp.

A technique that measures X-ray photons to characterize different materials.

The study of animal remains recovered from prehistoric and historic archaeological sites, to better understand how past human-animal interaction.